UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING DISABILITIES: INTERVENTION AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES
PAPER
PRESENTED BY
PSYCHOLOGIST
NWOKOLO OKEY-MARTINS
PROGRAMME
SUPERVISOR ACCELERATON THERAPY, LAGOS
Graduate
fellow Department of Psychology,
University
of Lagos
Tel: 08039112839
AT THE 2ND ANNUAL NATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON LEARNING DISABILITIES ORGANISED BY THE CENTRE FOR LEARNING DISABILITIES AND AUDIOLOGY, ABUJA.
OCTOBER 31ST - NOVEMBER 2ND 2006.
UNDERSTANDING LEARNING DISABILITIES.
The term Learning
Disabilities (LD) was first used by Dr. Samuel Kirk in 1963 to describe
children who have serious learning problem in school but no other obvious
“handicap”. Today, learning disabilities is widely recognized as a separate
category or condition. However, Sam Kirk and Barbara Bateman actually used the
term in 1962, a year earlier in print, but Kirk’s speech to a group of concerned
parents in 1963 is often cited as the basis for using the term to describe
these children. Nevertheless, the difficulties that students faced due to LD
were not new (Currie and Wadlington, 2000).
What
is a Learning Disability?
Although the sub-field of
learning disabilities is now 43 years old, it has no clear, universally agreed
–upon definition. There is ongoing debate on the issue of definition, and there
are more than 10 definitions that appear in the professional literature.
Perhaps, this is as a result of the multidisciplinary nature of the field.
However, most definitions incorporate 3 (three) criteria that must be met for a
child to be labeled learning disabled.
Learning disabled children
must have a severe discrepancy between potential or ability and actual
achieving.
1.
Learning disabled children must have learning
problems that cannot be attributed to other handicapping conditions such as
blindness, mental retardation, and emotional disturbance, environmental,
economic or cultural disadvantage.
2.
Learning disabled children must need intervention
and special educational services (not needed by their well peers) to succeed.
The Learning Disabilities
Association of America defines learning disability as a neurological disorder
that affects one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in
understanding or in using spoken or written language. The disability may
manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write
spell or to do mathematical calculations. (LDA, 2005).
It should be noted that
there are individual differences in the type, severity and symptoms manifested
by persons with LD. Every individual with a learning disability is unique and
shows a different combination and degree of difficulties. The implication is
that one person with LD may not have the same kind of learning challenges as
another person.
For instance, a child with
LD may have problem with doing math; another may have challenges with motor
co-ordination or listening.
Majority of people with
learning disabilities are of average or above average intelligence. Usually
there seems to be a gap between the person’s potential and actual achievement.
This is why LD are referred to as “hidden disabilities” the individual looks
very “normal” and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person yet may be
unable to perform the skill expected from someone of a similar age.
Children with LD can achieve
success in school, relationships and at work if they receive appropriate
support and early intervention. There is no “cure” for learning disabilities. Researchers
think that LD is life-long.
What
causes Learning Disabilities?
Learning Disability is a
general term that describes specific kinds of learning problems. The causes are
complex and not well understood. Researches on the causes of learning
disabilities suggest that they may be as diverse as the types of LD. None of
the available evidences is conclusive on the exact cause(s) of LD.
Nevertheless, certain observations and pointers have emerged and include:
v Learning
Disabilities appear to have a genetic component. LD tends to run in families,
so some learning disabilities may be inherited.
v Teratogenic
causes: e.g., alcohol, lead, cocaine and (recently the suspicious) mercury
(Lerner, 2000).
v Medical causes:
e.g., premature birth, diabetics, meningitis Injuries before birth or in early
childhood probably account for some later learning problems .Children born
prematurely and children who had medical problems soon after birth sometimes
have learning disabilities.
v Environmental
causes: e.g., malnutrition and poor prenatal healthcare.
v Some children
develop and mature at a slower rate than others in the same age group. As a
result, they may not be able to do the expected school work.. This kind of
learning disability is called “ Maturational lag”
According to Heward and
Orlansky (2002), Learning Disabilities may be caused by brain:
i.
Brain damage
ii.
Biochemical imbalances
iii.
Environment (e.g. quality of teaching)
v Some learning
disabilities appear to be linked to the irregular spelling, pronunciation, and
structure of the English language. The incidence of learning disabilities is
lower in Spanish or Italian speaking countries.
v Delayed onset of
Intervention may also result to LD. The definition of LD often requires the
child to have a discrepancy i.e. a difference between ability and achievement.
This works against giving special instructional services to very young
children; if the services could be provided when they are young, then the
problems might be prevented.
v Teaching impaired
or teaching disabled teachers. There is a possibility that poor quality of
instruction may result in LD. However, research on this factor has not been
successful (Slavin et al,1991).
Many researchers
suggest that rather than determining the cause of student’s problems, it is
more important to determine the individual’s unique educational needs and
design instruction that has the best chance of helping him or her to meet those
needs.
SOME
EARLY SIGNS OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
Children with LD may
manifest an array of symptoms which includes difficulties in math, reading,
writing, spelling, comprehension, and memory and reasoning skills.
Hyperactivity, inattention and perceptual coordination may also be associated
with learning disabilities but are
not learning disabilities themselves.
Ø Reversals in
writing or reading
Ø Difficulty
discriminating size, shape, colour
Ø Poor performance
on group tests
Ø Difficulty with
temporal (time) concepts
Ø Poor visual –
motor coordination
Ø Difficulty
copying accurately from model
Ø Difficulty with
tasks requiring sequencing
Ø Overly
distractible, difficultly concentrating
Ø Slowness in
completing work
Ø Poor
organizational skills.
Ø Easily confused
by instructions
Ø Often obsesses on
one topic or idea
Ø Poor short-term
or long-term memory
Ø Impulsive
behaviour, lack of reflective thought prior to action.
Ø Low tolerance for
frustration
Ø Poor peer
relations
Ø Poor social
judgment
Ø Lags in
developmental milestones (e.g. motor, language)
Ø Behavior often
inappropriate for situation
Ø Overly excited
during play
Ø Failure to see
consequences for action
Ø Lack of hand
preference or mixed dominance
Ø Disorganized
thinking
Ø Overly gullible;
easily led by peers
According to the Division
for Learning Disabilities of the council for Exceptional Children (2006),
characteristics of LD vary with age. They categorized the characteristics of LD
into Preschool, Elementary and Adolescence/Adulthood.
PRESCHOOL
Check if child has
difficulties in:
·
Learning the alphabet
·
Rhyming words
·
Counting and learning numbers
·
Pronouncing words
·
Connecting spoken sounds with letters
·
Using crayons, paints, playdough
·
Remembering names of colours
·
Walking forward or up and down stairs
·
Dressing self without assistance
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL
·
Speaking in full sentences
·
Reading accurately
·
Retelling stories
·
Following rules of conversation
·
Remembering routines
·
Following directions
·
Holding pencils
·
Playing with peers
·
Moving from one activity to another
·
Writing letters and numerals by hand
·
Expressing thoughts verbally or in writing
·
Computing math problem at his or her class level
·
Reciting times table, counting numbers
·
Learning new skills
·
Keeping materials neat and assignments organized
·
Modulating voice (does he speak too loudly or in a
monotone?)
·
Playing age appropriate games
ADOLESCENCE
AND ADULTHOOD
Check if the person has
difficulties in:
·
Staying
organized
·
Remembering newly learned information
·
Understanding what he or she reads
·
Remembering and sticking to deadlines
·
Getting along with peers or coworkers
·
Following directions
·
Using basic skills (reading, writing, spelling,
math)
·
Using proper grammar in spoken or written
communication
SPECIFIC
LEARNING DISABILITIES
Some of the symptoms described
above may indicate:
Dyslexia: A language and reading disability
Dyscalculia: Problems with math concepts and
calculation
Dysgraphia: A writing disorder resulting in
poor handwriting and illegibility
Dyspraxia: A sensory integration
disorder resulting in problem with motor coordination.
Central
Auditory Processing Disorder: Difficulty processing and remembering language
– related tasks
Non
Verbal Learning Disorders: Problems with nonverbal cues e.g body language
Visual
Perceptual / Visual Motor Deficit: Reverses letters;
inability to copy accurately, hurting and itchy eyes, problems with cutting.
Language
Disorders (Aphasia / Dysphasia): Difficulty understanding spoken language;
poor reading comprehension.
TYPES OF LEARNING
DISABILITIES
Generally speaking, LD are
brain–based processing problems (LDA, 2006). There processing problems
interfere with the learning of basic skills (e.g. reading, writing math) and
higher level skills, (e.g. abstract reasoning, time, organization and
planning).
To identify the type of
learning disabilities therefore we would consider the specific processing
problem-in terms of:
Input: How information gets into
the brain
Organization: Making sense of this
information
Memory: Storing and retrieving
this information
Output: Getting this information
back out.
INPUT
FACTOR: The brain receives information primarily through the eyes (visual
perception) and ears (auditory perception). A person may have difficulty in one
or both areas.
Auditory
Perception: The person may not be able to differentiate between subtle differences
in sounds (called phonemes) or may not be able to distinguish individual sounds
as quickly as normal. They may have difficulty with auditory figure-ground.
They have difficulty identifying what sound(s) to listen to when there is more
than one sound.
Visual
Perception Disability: Visual
perceptual difficulties may include inability to distinguish subtle differences
in shapes (graphemes). They might rotate or reverse letters or numbers e.g. (6,
9, d, p, q, b). This results in misreading symbol. Some might have a
figure-ground problem, confusing what figure(s) to focus on from the page
covered with many words and lines. They might skip words, skip lines, or read
the same line twice. If there is difficulty with visual perception, there could
be challenges with tasks that require eye-hand coordination (visual motor
skills) such as catching a ball, doing a puzzle, or picking up bottle.
INTEGRATION
FACTORS
Once an input is made and
the brain records the information, 3 integrative tasks must be carried out to
make sense of the information. First the information must be placed in the
right order (or sequenced). Then it must be understood beyond the literal meaning
(abstraction). Lastly, each unit of information must be integrated into
complete thoughts or concepts (organization).
Sequencing: The person may have
difficulty learning information in the proper sequence, e.g. wrong sequencing
of numbers, alphabets, months of the year, days of the week etc.
Abstraction: One might have difficulties
inferring the meaning of individual words or concepts. Jokes, idioms, or riddles
are often not understood. They have trouble transferring.
Organization: The person may have problems
organizing materials, losing, forgetting, or misplacing papers, notebooks, or
homework assignments. He may have problems with organizing his environment such
as his bedroom. Some may have problem organizing time (organization over time
is referred to executive function)
Memory: Problems with working memory
(ability to hold on to pieces of information until the pieces blend into full
thought or concept. For example, reading each word until the end of a sentence
or paragraph and then understanding the full content. “Short-term memory is the
active process of storing and retaining information for a limited period of time. “Long-term memory refers to
information that has been stored and is available over a long period of time.
Language Learning
Disability: Individuals with LD may have difficulty communicating their thoughts
through speech, or may be able to speak but unable to answer specific
questions. Some may have problems understanding what others say to them. Part
of the problem results from the inability to place information in the correct
brain centers and retrieve it when it is needed. It is possible to think of
language output as being spontaneous or on demand. Spontaneous means that the
person initiates the conversations. Thoughts have been organized and words
found before speaking. Demand language means that one is asked or question or
asked to explain something. Now, the person must organize his thoughts, find
the right words, and speak at the same time.
Perceptual Motor Disability:
One
might have difficulty coordinating teams of small muscles, called a fine motor
disability. For instance, the student might have problems with buttoning, tying
shoes, coloring, cutting, writing and pasting.
Hyperactivity: The individual may find it
difficult to settle down, sit quiet, focus and attend. He may flit from task to
task without finishing one.
Distractibility: The person may not be able
to distinguish between important and unimportant stimuli. He is disorganized
because he can’t follow through on thought processes in an orderly fashion.
Their attention is often diverted from the task at hand.
EFFECTIVE INTERVENTION FOR
LD
Learning Disabilities vary. Individuals
living with the condition also vary. No one will have all the symptoms. Also no
two persons will manifest the same symptom in exactly the same way, degree or severity.
As a result, no single technique or theory whether social behavioural,
psychological or even educational is capable on it own, to explain or remediate
Learning Disabilities in all children.
My approach will be to
outline some tips and strategies that have proven effective with some LD
children. They include.
Ø Design an
Individual Education Plan (IEP): This must be done careful using a team
approach. There should be a close collaboration among special class teachers,
parents, psychologist, occupational therapist, speech-language therapist,
regular class teacher and others as need may be
Ø Create learning style
compatible conditions. Teach to students’ learning style strengths by involving
all parts of the brain in all activities; visualization, musical/auditory,
physical movement, rhythm and emotion all help learning.
Ø Capitalize on the
student’s strength
Ø Provide high
structure and clear expectation
Ø Use short
sentences and simple vocabulary
Ø Help build self
esteem by providing opportunities for success in a supportive atmosphere
Ø Use computers for
drills and practice teaching word
processing
Ø Allows
flexibility in classroom procedure (e.g. allowing the use of tape recorders for
note-taking and test taking when students have trouble with written language
Ø Give hyperactive
children frequent opportunities to move. E.g. have them sharpen pencil for
other kids or tap their pen on their leg instead of a desk
Ø Make learning
concrete .Majority of persons with LD do quite well when a learning task is
something they can get their hands on and when it is connected to something
they are curious about.
Ø Children with LD
often work better alone or with a partner. Therefore, when possible, find
alternatives to large group work.
Ø Encourage the use
of assistive technology by making them available – and not waiting until they
can do so on their own. Let them use calculators for computation; word
processors and spell check programmes for written work.
Ø Children with LD
work more enthusiastically on projects than on skill work. They learn better if
immersed in one topic for several days, as opposed to moving from topic to
topic each day.
Ø Struggling
students may take tests in untimed situations – or at least be given more time.
Ø Provide lots of
opportunities to practice
Ø Match teaching
style to learning style .Visual people learn by seeing; auditory people learn
by listening while tactile – kinesthetic people learn by touching and moving so
keep that in mind.
Ø Provide a visual
schedule to list all the tasks to be performed each day.
Ø Teach the child
how to purposefully relax before beginning school tasks. Ensure that the child
is on a calm alert estate (learning – ready state) before commencing.
Ø A quiet soothing
music might be helpful for auditory integration
Ø Provide positive
reinforcement of appropriate social skills both at home and school.
Ø Break tasks into
smaller steps, and giving directions verbally and in writing.
Ø A student with
listening difficulties may borrow notes from a classmate or use a tape recorder
Ø Teach
organizational skills, study skills and learning strategies. This is particularly
helpful for people with LD.
Ø Get the child to
help with household chores. Involving him can build self-confidence and
concrete skills. Keep instructions simple and reward child’s effort with
praise.
Ø Monitor your
teaching skills and pursue professional development. Some LDs are said to
result from “teaching disabled teachers”.
Ø Talk slowly. Keep
conversations brief
Ø Give them advance
notice, don’t take them unawares
Ø Establish eye
contact while speaking to students. You may however, not insist that they
maintain it, if it makes them uncomfortable.
Ø For those who are
confused by too much to look at on a page, provide “windows” cut out of paper
or cardboard and expose portions of the page at a time.
Ø Never do for your
students what they can do for themselves.
Ø Seat students
whose behaviours are distracting behind the vision of other children .Surround
them with students who can model appropriate behaviours
Ø Routines are
useful. Therefore, establish and use predictable routines in class activities
and in transitions. Give notice if a routine will be changed or interrupted.
Unpredictability throws many struggling students off-balance.
ISSUES
OF PREVENTION
There is an interesting and
useful debate about special education versus inclusion for children with
learning and developmental disabilities.
However, for children at
risk of learning disabilities neither special education nor inclusion is the answer.
In place of those, we need to focus on effective prevention and early
intervention. Why must we allow our children to fall behind and only then
provide assistance – when ab initio, we know how to ensure that they don’t
fall? Robber slaving of Johns Hopkins
University told a story
or parable of the fence and ambulance:
“Once upon a
time, there was a town that has in it a playground located at the edge of the
cliff. Every so often, a child would fall off the cliff and would be seriously
injured. At last the town council decided that something should be done. After
much discussion however, the council was deadlocked. Some council members
wanted to put a fence at the top of the cliff, but others wanted to put an
ambulance at the bottom. “(Slavin, Madden, Karweit, Dolan, Wasik, Shaw,
Mainzer, Haxby, 1991).
The question is: which
option is better ….the fence or the ambulance?
I think the idea of putting
the ambulance is unwise. Waiting for children to be injured and then providing
them with help would be both cruel and criminal, if the damage could have been
prevented.
There are many professional
efforts at Preventing Learning Disabilities some of the notable prevention
programmes for LD include:
(a)
Reading Recovery: This is a first-grade
tutoring programme originally developed in New Zealand by Marie Clay (Pinnell,
Deford and Lyons, 1988). It’s an approach that provides 30 minutes of daily
one-to-one tutoring to first graders who score too poorly in diagnostic
battery.
(b)
Success for All: This method was
popularized by Slavin (1995). It focuses on prevention and early intervention
and starts with 4 and 5 year olds.
(c)
PLD: Silver and Hagin
(1990) described PLD (Prevention of Learning Disabilities) a one-to-one
tutoring that focuses on perceptual skills for first graders.
There are lots of other
programmes aiming to prevent learning Disabilities. The General goal is to keep
children from ever needing special educational services for the learning
disabled. Some common features of these programmes are:
·
There is an emphasis on early intervention-targeting preschoolers
·
They emphasis one-to-one teacher – learning
·
They design IEP’s – tailored to individual needs.
·
Intensive stimulation
Early intervention is key to
preventing and minimizing the impact that LD can have on students. While we are
still struggling, in Nigeria,
to develop special schools, civilized societies are transitioning from
inclusion/mainstreaming to NEVERSTREAMING.
We have an urgent obligation
to detect LD and intervene as early as possible.
Thank
you for your attention.
REFERENCE
Curie, P.S. Wadlington,
E.M. (2000). The source for learning disabilities. East Moline, IL:
LinguiSystems.
(Web: http://www.linguisystem.com)
Division for
Learning Disabilities of the Council for exceptional children (2006):
Characteristics of Learning Disability.
LDA, (2005).
Learning Disability Association
Lerner, J.W.
(2000) Learning Disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, and teaching strategies (8th
ed). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Silver, A.A.,
& Hagin, R.A. (1990). Disorder of Learning in Childhood. New York: Wiley.
Slavin, R.E.
(1995). Every Child, Every School: Success for All. Newbury Park, CA:
Corwin
Slavin, R.E.,
Madden, N.A. Karweit, N.L., Dolan, L., Wasik, B.A., Shaw, A., Mainzer, K.L.,
Haxby, B. (1991). Neverstreming: Prevention and early intervention as
alternatives to special education. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24,
373-378
